Re-interpreting Brecht: His Influence on Contemporary Drama and Film

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Sumac Space. 2021. History/Image: National Memory Beyond Nationalism—A Conversation between Iranian Photographer Parham Taghioff and Milad Odabaei. Available online: https://sumac.space/dialogues/history-image-national-memory-beyond-nationalism/ (accessed on 14 December 2022). Enabling communication between parties speaking different languages has long been conceptualized as interpreting, with the implication that interpreting is an essentially oral form of language use. This sets it apart from the activity known as translation, generally understood to involve different written languages. Given its reliance on writing as a secondary modality of language, translation is predated by interpreting, which can therefore claim primary or primordial status. At the same time, the significance of written language in human civilization (see Ong Citation1982) has increasingly relegated interpreting to the status of a secondary concept that can be subsumed under the wider notion of translation – that is, as a concept relating to one of many different forms of translation. It is this latter view, necessarily, that underlies the present contribution to the discussion about the conceptualization of translation in translation studies. More specifically, my main goal and task will be to question current assumptions about interpreting as summarized in the first lines of this article, and to propose ways in which the concept of interpreting could or should be redefined. Cannon JP, Homburg C (2001) Buyer-supplier relationships and customer firm costs. J Mark 65(1):29–43 We hope that, through this work, we will contribute to raising the quality of RE for all young people. The education inspection framework and RE

Moreover, most producers of SDH for media broadcasts have come to rely on respeaking with speech recognition software (Romero-Fresco Citation2015, Citation2019), making this a human performance that is crucially dependent on digital technology. Given the rapid progress of speech (recognition) technologies over the past decade, the respeaking component of live subtitling has increasingly been replaced by fully automatic (speaker-independent) speech recognition, moving this machine-assisted or machine-driven process toward a largely automatic one in which human agency is required only for (live) editing. Greco’s ( Citation2018) universalist account of accessibility has special appeal for its fundamental grounding in human rights and the notion of access as a requirement for enjoying these rights and safeguarding human dignity. His approach to media accessibility from what he envisages as the interdisciplinary field of accessibility studies moves the users of such services, including translation services, centre-stage. It aspires to eliminate what Greco identifies as a persistent “maker–user gap” which results from the design and provision of services “according to the makers’ interpretation of users’ needs and capabilities” ( Citation2018, 212). Nevertheless, regulatory efforts for access services must necessarily encompass the maker and user perspectives alike. This is evident from the European Accessibility Act (European Union Citation2019), which first and foremost seeks to harmonize accessibility requirements for products and services so as to ensure the proper functioning of the internal market. Although building on the United Nations Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations Citation2006), Paragraph (1) of the Directive’s preamble speaks of “barriers” not to equal participation in society but “to the free movement of certain accessible products and services”. The preamble goes on to mention also “barriers to accessing content” (41) faced by persons with disabilities, but it is only in Section IV of Annex I that specific accessibility requirements are formulated. Paragraph (b)(ii) specifies technical quality requirements for audio-visual media “access services […] such as subtitles for the deaf and hard of hearing, audio description, spoken subtitles and sign language interpretation”. It remains unclear whether the first two forms of access service in the list are to be understood in the broader sense, in each case including non-immediate as well as live production (i.e. audio-visual translation and simultaneous interpreting as mapped in Figure 2), or whether they are in fact limited to AVT with a lower-case “t”, so that the Directive would fail to direct media service providers to provide also for live translation. Mitchell, William John Thomas, ed. 2002. Landscape and Power. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. [ Google Scholar] Rahimi, Sadeq. 2021. The Hauntology of Everyday Life. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. [ Google Scholar]Changing demographic and cultural dimensions of populations: Implications for healthcare and decision making In schools without a religious character, we look at RE as part of EIF inspections under section 5. [footnote 4] We also look at RE in voluntary controlled ( VC) schools, whether or not they are designated as having a religious character. However, the National Association of Teachers of Religious Education ( NATRE) argues that a significant number of schools give insufficient curriculum time to RE, based on responses to its regular primary school surveys. For NATRE, insufficient time is considered to be fewer than 45 minutes of teaching time a week. The surveys have suggested that: You can be based in a variety of settings depending on the area of interpreting you work in. This may include a conference centre, office or business premises, at a police station, court, prison or hospital. In some roles, you could spend a lot of time working on the telephone. Find out more about the different kinds of work experience and internships that are available. Employers

A stakeholder position with particular potential to shape the social practices in question is that of a policy-maker, which I suggest could be labelled here as a “regulator”, in a broader sense. This could include any institution or organization issuing guidance, legal provisions or standards regulating the social practice in question. In the field of legal interpreting, for instance, this would include the lawmakers adopting legislation governing who can serve as an interpreter in court, or the fees to be paid for such service; in healthcare, this could be an individual hospital issuing a policy banning the use of children as interpreters. The focus on access across sensory barriers came to the fore early in the millennium when the rights of persons with disabilities were at last enshrined in a world-wide convention (United Nations Citation2006). Access to media content emerged as a core area of what came to be referred to as “accessibility”, and it was scholars of audiovisual translation (AVT) who took an interest in such access services as SDH (closed captioning), which had been pioneered by broadcasters in the US and the UK decades earlier. Jorge Díaz Cintas, Pilar Orero and Aline Remael ( Citation2007, 13) suggest that “accessibility […] can be compared, to a certain extent, to translation and interpreting”, arguing that as translation allows access to publications and the written heritage, interpreting permits access, for instance, to conference speeches, healthcare consultations and live media broadcasts. They go on to note the expansion of the field of AVT by “new professional translation processes” ( Citation2007, 11) such as the live subtitling of TV programmes using speech technologies, and audio description. These AVT scholars evidently embrace both intralingual and intermodal forms of translation (and interpreting) alongside the established forms of interlingual translation in the media (i.e. prepared subtitling and dubbing). There are many different methods of interpretation, and there are even more categories of interpreter based on which industries they serve. Barthes, Roland. 1981. Camera Lucida: Reflections on Photography. Translated by Richard Howard. New York: Hill and Wang, pp. 88–89. [ Google Scholar] One of the reasons for this distinction — besides being specific about what we’re talking about — is that translators and interpreters use slightly different sets of skills. For instance, it’s more important for an interpreter to have strong listening skills, so that they can hear what they’re interpreting correctly (and in the case of signed languages, dexterity, so they can make coordinated movements). A translator would place greater emphasis on honing their reading and writing skills.

Interpreting is usually done in only one direction, normally into your native tongue, but you may be required to interpret on a two-way basis. It is also supported by research into RE, including research into practice and the theoretical work of academics and professionals. Hofstede G (1980) Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values (Vol. 5, Cross Cultural Research and Methodology). SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks The importance of building good practices for learning clinical reasoning into curricula and into students’ own practice development approaches In RE, there are different issues that can affect quality of education. Ofsted’s previous report on RE in 2013, ‘Religious education: realising the potential’, stated that the structures that underpin the local determination of the RE curriculum have failed to keep pace with changes in the wider educational world. [footnote 5] The local determination of RE also means that a concept of quality is not straightforward to identify.

Salama-Carr, Myriam. 2009. “Interpretive Approach.” In Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, 2nd ed., edited by Mona Baker, and Gabriela Saldanha, 145–147. Abingdon: Routledge. [Google Scholar] It is possible to get an internship with an interpreting agency, which will help you gain experience and find out whether you would enjoy the career. Irrespective of the innovative potential of Marais’s ( Citation2019) comprehensive theoretical framework (see Marais Citation2022), his semiotic reconceptualization of translation without reference to “interpreting as we know it” might seem to have little relevance for the present discussion – unless one were to tweak the Peircean account by prioritizing interpreting rather than translation. Embracing the view that interpreting relates to the process of meaning-making and results in an interpretation (understanding), one can propose a (bio)semiotic theory of interpreting in analogy to the theoretical framework of Marais ( Citation2019). Powell, Robert B., and Marc J. Stern. 2021. “Journal of Interpretation Research: Research is Necessary to Underpin the Field in Evidence.” Journal of Interpretation Research 26 ( 2): 47–48. doi:10.1177/10925872211067833. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar] Connelly BL, Certo ST, Ireland RD, Reutzel CR (2011) Signaling theory: A review and assessment. J Manag 37(1):39–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310388419Clinical reasoning as an increasingly team-based practice, including shared decision making with clients Translatio. 1995. Audiovisual Communication and Language Transfer. Special Issue of Translatio: Nouvelles de la FIT–FIT Newsletter 14 (3/4). [Google Scholar] Our education inspection framework ( EIF) reflects the expectations of how RE is provided. All schools that are state-funded, including free schools and academies, are legally required to provide RE as part of their curriculum. All schools are required to teach RE to all pupils at all key stages (including sixth form), except for those withdrawn. [footnote 3] The basis of a plant's spectral response of photosynthesis, or the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) curve, is derived from earlier studies nearly five decades ago. These studies reported that blue and red light were the primary wavelengths; however, shifting within red and blue peaks (10-40 nm) in addition to different PAR curve shapes was observed. In recent years, the McCree curve, which is considered the standard for spectral response of photosynthesis, has been challenged because of experimental design and differences between photosynthetic and whole-plant growth responses. Therefore, this overview provides an amalgamation of all the PAR curve studies, with a focus on narrow spectrum light characteristics, including light measurement units, full width at half maximums (FWHMs) of narrow light spectra, and light intensity levels. While replicating these pioneering works with higher wavelength resolution and narrower light spectrum across the whole visible spectrum is still challenging, we hope that this re-interpretation of PAR curves in plants can elucidate and provide in-depth insight into spectral responses of photosynthesis. We leave the readers with some different perspectives and prospects that need to be considered for future studies. A stimulating example of this approach can be found in Walid Raad’s projects under the fictional Atlas Group (1989–2004). These projects consisted of found and produced audio, visual and literary documents that shed light on the contemporary history of Lebanon, with particular emphasis on the Lebanese civil wars of 1975 to 1990. The documentary material that the Atlas Group presented as ‘archival’ materials was of dubious provenance, sourced to anonymous individuals or characters of questionable authenticity. Even when they were attributed to Raad himself, the documents freely combine fact and fiction in a way that suggests the highly subjective and contested nature of historical memory. Raad suggests that ‘the Atlas Group’s documents do not mimic reality, because that reality is itself suspect. What we have come to believe is true is not consistent with what’s available to the senses. If truth is not what’s available to the senses, if truth is not consistent with rationality, then truth is not equivalent to discourse’ ( Wilson-Goldie 2004).